Aton: The Sun Disk God of Ancient Egypt

The Origins of Aton

Aton, meaning sun disk, is a term that first appeared in the Middle Kingdom. In the Eighteenth Dynasty texts of the New Kingdom, the word Aton is frequently used in the sense of “throne” or “place” of the sun god. Because Egyptians tended to personify certain expressions, the word Aton was written with a hieroglyphic sign meaning “god”. Through metaphor, Aton was eventually conceived as a direct personification of the sun god. Aton was particularly favored during the New Kingdom reign of Thutmose IV (1419-1410 CE) and Amenhotep III (1410-1382 CE).
However, the true origin of Aton dates back to Amenhotep IV (later Akhenaten, 1382-1365 BC), who began the first historical appearance of the god by coining a didactic name for him.

The Construction of the Temple of Aton

In the early years of Amenhotep IV's reign, the sun god Ra Horakhti, traditionally depicted with the head of a falcon, was identical to Aten and was worshipped as a deity. The ruler revealed his apparent affinity for the newly created deity in the construction of a massive temple east of the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak in the third year of his reign. The temple was decorated in a new “expressionist” style that broke with previous traditions and soon influenced the representation of all figures. This new style of art introduced by Amenhotep IV reflected a religious upheaval.
Initially, the god Amun was replaced by the god Aten, newly interpreted in iconography and nomenclature. The falcon-headed figure of Ra Horakhti was abandoned in favor of the solar disk, now depicted as a sphere emitting rays that ended in human hands granting “life” to the king and his great royal wife Nefertiti.

Inscribed limestone fragment with early Aten cartouches, "the Living Ra Horakhty," from Amarna, Egypt | Date: 23 July 2016 | Source: Own work | Author: Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg) | Collection: Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London

Aton's Royal Title and Theological Significance

Aton received a royal title, inscribed like royal names in two oval cartouches. Aton's didactic name means “the living one, Ra Horakhti, who rejoices in the horizon, in whose name he is the god of the space between the earth and the sky and the light that fills that space, which comes from the solar sphere. This designation reflects radically new theological positions. In contrast to the traditional conception of the god, these names meant that Ra and the sun gods Khepri, Horakhti, and Atum could no longer be accepted as manifestations of the sun.
The new deity was conceptualized not so much as the sun disk as the light emanating from the sun; to make this distinction, his name was best pronounced “Yatin.”

Aton as the Supreme Deity

Aten was the king of kings and did not need a goddess as a companion like the other Egyptian gods; there was no enemy that could pose a threat to him; he was the light that penetrated the world, giving life everywhere. Although it was customary for the gods to communicate verbally with the pharaoh, Aten remained silent. He had made Amun-Hotep IV act as his messenger and prophet. Although Aten had ascended to the top of the Pantheon, most of the old gods initially retained their positions, and this situation led to the rise of many of the old gods.
But things soon changed, and the gods of the dead, such as Osiris, were the first to disappear from religious life. Step by step, the king continued his reform. At the beginning of the sixth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV founded a new capital in the desert valley of Tell el-Amarna in Middle Egypt.

The Founding of Akhetaton

Fourteen unique rock-cut stelae, modeled after sacred shrines, marked the boundaries of the new headquarters, which was named Akhetaton (“Horizon of Atun”). On these stelae, the king explained why he chose this site: On this pristine land, to which no one could claim ownership, the new city of Aten was to be built. Here Aten could be worshipped without regard for other gods. Two major temples to Aten were built at Akhetaton.
The large temple was an open, unroofed building covering an area of about 800 meters by 300 meters at the northern end of the city. The other temple was a smaller building with a similar design. Both were filled with offering tables. The first courtyard of the smaller temple contained a huge mud-brick altar; these monuments may have been the first structures erected in the new city.

Small Temple of Aten at Tell el-Amarna, Egypt

Small Temple of Aten in Tell el-Amarna, Egypt | Date: 12 October 2014 | Source: Own work
Author: Olaf Tausch

Akhenaten's Religious Reforms

Around the time of Akhetaten's founding, Amunhotep IV changed his royal title to reflect the reign of Aten. Most strikingly, he changed his birth name from Amenhotep, which can be translated as “Amun satisfied,” to Akhenaten, meaning “one who is useful to Aten” or “the luminous manifestation of Aten.” The king then proceeded to emphasize Aten's unique status above all other gods through excessive preferential treatment. In his constant attempt to redefine and reinforce his doctrine around Aten, he eventually suppressed all other gods.
The new doctrine can be summarized in the formula “There is no god but Aten, and Akhenaten is his prophet. Although this belief did not originate from the people, the king imposed it on his subjects. Previously a polytheistic state, Egypt had always tolerated foreign gods and religions, but now the king no longer tolerated rivals to Aten.

Akhenaten's Hymn to the Sun

Akhenaten's Hymn to the Sun offers some theological insights into the newly evolved image of the god. This literary masterpiece, probably composed by the king himself, is inscribed in thirteen long lines on the walls of the tomb of the courtier Ay, who later succeeded Tutankhamun on the throne. The main part of the poem is a hymn of praise to Aten as the creator and preserver of the world.
Because the names of other gods are not mentioned, there are no allusions to mythological concepts. The themes of night and death, which are elaborated with references to god-like beings in all other religious texts in Egypt, are only briefly mentioned in this hymn, to signify the absence of Aton. The great hymn to Aton is replete with descriptions of nature. It refers to the king's position in the new religion. He is the only one to whom God has revealed himself: “There is no one else who knows you.”
Only the ruler knew the demands and commandments of his god. In this framework, the king became the sole mediator between the people and Aten, the god who remained distant and incomprehensible to the common people. This exclusive privilege was shared by the king's family. The scarcity of mythology in the new religion was filled with the history of the ruler's family. The great royal wife Nefertiti, who was almost equal to the king, claimed her place in worship and the state. So it is not surprising that believers in the Tell el-Amarna period prayed before special worship shrines containing representations of the “sacred” royal family.

A house altar showing Akhenaten, Nefertiti and three of their daughters. 18th dynasty, reign of Akhenaten

The Role of the Royal Family in Worship

Certainly no house in Akhetaten would have been without such a monument as an official place of worship. Around the ninth year of the reign, the name of the god Atun changed again. The mention of Horakhti and Shui appeared. The divine name Horakhti was replaced by the more neutral deity Atun, the Ruler of the Horizon. With this change, the ancient and venerated human image of the sun god was replaced. In the form of the falcon, once and for all, a more pure form of monotheism was introduced.

The Persecution of Other Gods

From now on, the god was called “the One Living One, the Sun, the ruler of the horizon, who rejoices in the horizon with his name, the sunlight, which comes from the disk.” The essence of the Tal Amarna religion, which inaugurated religious governance and systematic monotheism, revolves around two main themes: Light and King. Perhaps after the final change of Atun's name, the ruler ordered the closure of all the temples of other gods in the country. To completely extinguish their memory, a real persecution began. Armies of stone builders marched across the country as far as Nubia, above all to cut down the image and name of the despised Amun. Other gods were also persecuted; even polytheistic “gods” were shunned.

The End of Akhenaten's Reign and the Restoration of Old Gods

When this persecution began, the Tell el-Amarna period was already at the beginning of its end, and just before or shortly after the king's death, the worship of the old gods was restored. Akhetaton was abandoned as a capital, and Aten disappeared from the Egyptian pantheon. In the aftermath of the Tell el-Amarna period, there was an attempt to erase the memory of the king, his queen Nefertiti, and everyone associated with this heresy - by erasing references to them and destroying their monuments.