The Title and Evolution of Baal
The Mesopotamian title "Bel" was used to refer to the king of the gods, "Marduk," meaning "lord." It is unclear whether the Amorites coined this title or if it existed earlier among the Sumerians. However, this title quickly spread among the Canaanites and came to refer to the weather god, whose attributes resembled those of Marduk. The title evolved into "Baal," meaning "lord," "owner," "master," or "husband." Over time, "Baal" became a title for any god.Epithets of Baal
In Ugaritic texts, Baal was given several epithets, including:• Aliyn: Signifying greatness and strength, as in "Aliyn Qardm," meaning "strongest of heroes."
• Rider of the Clouds: A common Mesopotamian title.
• Zebul: Meaning "prince," as in "Zebul Baal Arets" ("Prince and Lord of the Earth"), which later inspired the title "Baal Zebub" ("Lord of the Flies" or "Flycatcher").
• Ali: Meaning "the high one," referring to clouds, as found in the Epic of Keret. This epithet gave rise to "Aliyon" and "Aliyan."
• Gmr: Appearing in phrases like "Gmr Hadad" and "Gmr Ali."
• Hadad: Meaning "weather" or "rain," unrelated to the Sumerian god "Adad."
• Son of Dagon: Baal was sometimes associated with Dagon, the god of clouds, grains, and fish, paralleling the god El.
 |
| Baal: God of Storms and Fertility |
Confusion Surrounding Baal's Character
There was significant confusion surrounding Baal's character, primarily due to his early merging with Hadad, the Aramean god. This fusion became prominent in the early first millennium BCE when Baal's Canaanite identity merged with similar weather and storm gods, particularly the Aramean god Hadad (or Hadda). This resulted in the hybrid figure "Baal Hadad," depicted riding a bull and holding a single or double-pronged lightning bolt. |
| Baal Hadad |
Depictions of Storm Gods
Depictions of storm gods such as Hittite Tarhun (Teshub) show him standing on a bull, wielding a singular pronged trident, raising an axe, and appearing beneath a winged solar disc. Similarly, the Aramean god Hadad is depicted holding a long single-pronged lightning bolt and standing on a bull. These figures are not Baal but neighboring storm gods, whose imagery later blended with Baal's. |
| storm gods Hittite Tarhun (Teshub) |
Baal in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods
In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, Baal underwent significant transformations. The Canaanite Baal or Baal Hadad merged with the Greek god Zeus and the Roman god Jupiter. For example, Baal of the Bekaa Valley ("Baalbek") is depicted with a headdress featuring layers of sharp, spiral horns and raising his right hand. In Roman tradition, Baalbek was associated with Jupiter Capitolinus or the benevolent supreme god Jupiter Heliopolitans, whose depictions include a mix of various divine motifs.Baal's Birth and Parentage
Although we lack a specific myth about Baal's birth, it is generally believed that he was born from the union of El and Athirat. One text describes him as "Bull El, father of Baal." In some texts, Baal is referred to as the son of Dagon (Dagn), possibly to equate El and Dagon or to distance Baal, seen as "evil," from El, perceived as "good." The Canaanite/Ugaritic Baal is depicted standing over the underworld, wielding symbols of his power: the spear, club, and dagger at his waist.
Baal's Rise to Power
In some Canaanite reliefs, Baal is shown with a bull, while Ugaritic depictions show him standing on underworld symbols. Baal seized the title "Bull" from his father, El, after usurping his throne. It is suggested that Baal plotted an attack on El to take the throne, but El countered with support from the sea god "Yam," who allowed Baal's palace to be built and recognized Baal among his children.As Baal grew, he and his sister Anat engaged in battles, which they won. One myth describes the goddess Athirat engrossed in religious rituals, throwing her spindle into the sea while imploring the absent El. When Baal and Anat surprise her with their arrival, she is overcome with fear and faints. However, she regains consciousness upon receiving gifts of gold and silver from Baal and Anat and rejoices.
Baal and Yam: The Conflict
One of Baal's most famous myths is the tale of "Baal and Yam," which recounts the conflict between Baal and the sea god Yam, a close ally of El. Yam requests permission from El to build a palace, which El grants reluctantly. Yam then sends messengers to the divine assembly led by El to summon Baal. The council agrees to deliver Baal, which enrages him, and he prepares to fight. "El, the bull, his father, answers:'Baal is your servant, O Yam,
Baal is your servant forever,
Son of Dagon, your companion.
He will carry your tribute as the gods do,
Yes, he will offer your sacrifices as the holy ones do.'"
Baal's anger boils over, and he seizes a butcher's knife to slay Yam's messengers. However, the goddesses Anat and Astarte restrain him. The divine craftsmen Kothar-wa-Khasis then forge magical weapons for Baal:
• The Yagrush: The "chaser" weapon for the first blow.
• The Aymur: The "driver" weapon for the second strike.
"The club springs from Baal's hand,
Like a falcon from his fingers,
It strikes the shoulders of Prince Yam,
Between the arms of Judge River.
The club springs again,
Like a falcon from his fingers,
It strikes the head of Prince Yam,
Between the eyes of Judge River.
Yam staggers and collapses to the ground."
After defeating Yam, Baal faces criticism from Astarte for killing Yam, who was beloved by El. Baal seizes authority over the gods but is denied full kingship due to his defiance of El. This victory also marks El's abdication of the throne, symbolizing Baal's rise to power and El's retreat to the far islands or the underworld.
Baal is your servant forever,
Son of Dagon, your companion.
He will carry your tribute as the gods do,
Yes, he will offer your sacrifices as the holy ones do.'"
Baal's anger boils over, and he seizes a butcher's knife to slay Yam's messengers. However, the goddesses Anat and Astarte restrain him. The divine craftsmen Kothar-wa-Khasis then forge magical weapons for Baal:
• The Yagrush: The "chaser" weapon for the first blow.
• The Aymur: The "driver" weapon for the second strike.
Baal's Victory and Its Consequences
The weapons are described in the following conflict:"The club springs from Baal's hand,
Like a falcon from his fingers,
It strikes the shoulders of Prince Yam,
Between the arms of Judge River.
The club springs again,
Like a falcon from his fingers,
It strikes the head of Prince Yam,
Between the eyes of Judge River.
Yam staggers and collapses to the ground."
After defeating Yam, Baal faces criticism from Astarte for killing Yam, who was beloved by El. Baal seizes authority over the gods but is denied full kingship due to his defiance of El. This victory also marks El's abdication of the throne, symbolizing Baal's rise to power and El's retreat to the far islands or the underworld.
This myth, along with the story of Baal's palace, may form part of the lost Canaanite creation epic.
The Struggle Between El and Baal
The history of Canaanite religions, leading up to Christianity, reflects the explicit and covert conflict between the gods El and Baal. When El prevailed, Baal and his followers were depicted as demons, libertines, and bearers of evil. Conversely, when Baal triumphed, El and his adherents were portrayed as outdated elders and representatives of the extinct old gods. The tension between these two traditions made it extremely difficult for El's faction to coexist with Baal and Ishtar's older and deeply rooted traditions. On the other hand, it was equally impossible for Baal and Ishtar to become mere agents of natural fertility, relinquishing the prominent positions they had held since the era of the first Neolithic settlements.The struggle would sometimes end in El's favor in certain periods and regions. Occasionally, religious compromises arose, incorporating both gods into a single pantheon where they coexisted harmoniously. We have noted that Baal's counterparts in Mesopotamian tradition are Bel (Marduk) in Babylonian mythology and Enlil in Sumerian mythology, as both are storm and air deities.
For those who prefer visual content, you can watch the video below that covers the same topic in detail.