Chaos
Before creation, there was a state of chaos, imagined as a dark, watery domain without limits, containing the potential for all life. The Egyptians saw chaos as an intellectual puzzle and speculated that the primordial substance was formless, dark, and boundless. This primordial water, called "Nun," surrounded the world even after creation and was considered the ultimate source of the Nile. When personified, Nun was seen as both the father and mother of the creator, as the creator was thought to have emerged from it.After creation, aspects of the primordial state, like darkness, were given consciousness and personified as gods known as the "Ogdoad" or the Eight of Hermopolis. These gods, often depicted as amphibians and reptiles, represented the forces that shaped the creator. To become the "fathers and mothers" of life, they needed to change or, in some accounts, die. Some temples even claimed to be their burial places.
Amun and his female counterpart, Amunet, were often considered part of the Ogdoad, embodying hidden power. As Amun rose to prominence, he became the unknowable force behind creation. In some traditions, the Eight were fertilized by the serpent Amun Kem-atef, the first primordial god, whose form symbolized renewal due to its undivided body. Creator gods like Amun or Atum, when depicted as serpents, symbolized chaos's positive, creative energy. However, chaos also had a destructive counterpart in the serpent Apophis, representing the constant threat of returning all creation to its original state of oneness. Thus, even before creation, the seeds of destruction existed within the world.
 |
| Nun, god of the waters of chaos, lifts the barque of the sun god Ra into the sky at the beginning of time. Date: Book published 2003; artwork created c. 1050 BC. Source: Scanned from The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt by Richard H. Wilkinson, p. 117 artwork from the Book of the Dead of Anhai. Author: Original author unknown. |
Emergence of the Creator
The creator becomes conscious and, feeling lonely, begins the process of creation by naming the elements of chaos. The first light or sound marks the start of creation, and the creator appears as the sun god, born in various forms emerging from a lotus, an egg, or landing as a bird on the first solid land. Known as the "unique one in the nun," the creator existed in a womb-like state, containing the potential for all life.In Egyptian texts, such as the Coffin Texts, the "self-created god" came into being alone, a concept challenging for their group-oriented culture. The creator remained solitary until their "heart became effective," allowing them to think and feel. the creator (referred to as Atum) brings forth eight gods by "speaking with the nun," thereby naming and separating chaos into order. Other texts describe the creator pushing back the primeval waters, likely through the power of speech, to create space for the act of creation.
Images of Emergence
The "primal event" of the creator's emergence to dispel the watery darkness was represented in various ways, with no single image or story considered sufficient. Egyptian creation myths combined different traditions without a strict timeline. The first act of creation could be a breath or cry, and light appeared with the creator's manifestation as the life-giving sun. This could be symbolized as an eye, child, or fiery bird. In Coffin Texts spell 75, the creator sends out an eye to illuminate the darkness, while another image portrays a blue lotus rising from the nun, with a child or ram-headed figure representing the newborn sun.The goddess Mehet-Weret, symbolizing the fertile aspect of the nun, was depicted as a cow, giving birth to the sun child and lifting him with her horns. A hymn from the New Kingdom describes the sky turning golden and the primeval waters as lapis lazuli at the first light. Some myths describe the sun emerging from a "cosmic egg" laid by a primeval bird, snake, or crocodile. The benu bird or the Great Honker broke the silence with the first sound, bringing light to the nun.
The first bird is sometimes depicted landing on a mass of vegetation or the first mound of dry land, marking the moment the creator could begin the work of creation. The Primeval Mound, personified as the god Tatjenen, was the foundation from which creation unfolded.
Creation
Throughout various periods and theological centers in Egypt, different deities were associated with creation, emerging from the primeval waters. These included gods such as Atum, Ra (or Ra-Atum), Shu, Ptah, Khnum, Amun-Ra, and goddesses like Neith, Hathor, and Isis. Key moments in creation involved establishing divine order (maat), separating male and female beings, and dividing earth from the sky. The Egyptian cosmos consisted of a divine realm in the upper sky, the earth (with Egypt at its center), and the Duat, the underworld. The creator first formed other gods, then living beings like humans and animals.The phrase "The One Who Made Himself into Millions" reflects the idea that creation was seen as a process of differentiation. Life's creation involved three elements: the creation of a body, the infusion of divine essence, and the breath of life. Some gods were linked more strongly with specific elements, such as Khnum with body creation and Amun-Ra with the breath of life. Over time, this led to the belief that all beings were, in some sense, forms of the creator. From the New Kingdom onwards, this concept became central to Egyptian religious thought.
.webp "Pharaoh Ramses III facing the gods of the Heliopolitan solar temple, including Ra-Horakhty and Aten") |
| Facsimile of an illustration from the Harris Papyrus. Pharaoh Ramses III facing the gods of the Heliopolitan solar temple, including Ra-Horakhty and Aten. 20th Dynasty, reign of Ramses III (c. 1184-1153 BC). Thebes. EA 9999/24. Date: 5 December 2018, 13:59 | Source: FacsÃmilPapiroHarrisRamsésIIIIsisAtónRaHorajti Author: rowanwindwhistler |
Heka, the embodiment of magic, was essential in transforming the creator's thoughts into reality. In Coffin Texts spell 261, Heka states he was present with the creator since the beginning. Neith, recognized in the Roman Period, created the world using seven magic words, while Isis was referred to as the Mistress of the Word.
The god Ptah, associated with the creative mind, linked Sia and Hu to the heart and tongue, respectively. According to the Memphite Theology, the heart was considered the organ of thought, with Ptah creating the world from his heart's plans. This theology highlights various creation models, emphasizing that ancient Egyptians viewed these concepts not as literal truths but as diverse ways to express the profound mystery of creation.
Khnum, often depicted as a ram symbolizing virility, was also a divine craftsman, celebrated for "forming everything" on his potter's wheel. While he was sometimes referred to as the one who "begets" gods, his primary role was that of a potter responding to the creator's commands. As Khnum evolved into a universal creator, his name frequently appeared alongside established deities like Ra and Ptah. Despite their significance, craftsmen in ancient Egyptian society typically did not achieve high social status.
Before creation, there was no distinction between genders; the creator encompassed both male and female principles. Often referred to as “the father and mother of all things,” creator deities like Atum are depicted as giving birth to other gods. The methods of reproduction attributed to Atum vary from vague descriptions to explicit imagery. For instance, the Pyramid Texts (PT) state that Atum masturbated to produce the deities Shu and Tefnut, while other accounts suggest he spat them out or exhaled them from his nose and mouth.These differing narratives are reconciled in later texts like the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus, which depict Atum using his thoughts and utterances to create. His mouth acts as a substitute womb, transforming his seed into the first gendered deities. The Memphite Theology emphasizes both biological and intellectual aspects of creation, stating that the Ennead, the first nine deities, emerged from Atum's seed and mouth.
After the birth of Shu and Tefnut, Atum's identity solidified as a father. The Hand of Atum, personified as a goddess, became his consort and was often associated with Hathor, the female creative principle. The twins represent Atum's male and female aspects, with Atum transferring his ka (vital essence) to them. In the Coffin Texts, they are described as residing with their father in the primeval waters, tightly connected, signifying their unity. For creation to progress, Shu and Tefnut needed to fully differentiate from Atum.
The Coffin Texts suggest that Atum became separated from his children, Shu and Tefnut, who drifted away into the darkness of the primeval waters. In Coffin Texts spell 76, Shu recounts that Atum sent his Sole Eye to search for them, stating, “I made light in the darkness and it found me.” This Sole Eye is typically identified as the daughter of Ra, reflecting her connection to the solar aspect of the creator. Envisioned as a goddess, the Sole Eye can operate independently from the sun god while remaining part of him.
The search for Shu and Tefnut is tied to myths surrounding the first sunrise. Shu, the air god, creates a void in the waters to allow the solar eye to shine for the first time. A more detailed version of this story in the Bremner-Rhind Papyrus emphasizes the nurturing role of the god of the primeval waters, who follows the lost children with his Eye. When Atum fully emerges on the Primeval Mound, Shu and Tefnut return, accompanied by the Eye.
However, the creator has grown a new eye/disk, inciting the fury of his returning daughter. To placate her anger, Atum transforms her into the uraeus cobra, placing her on his forehead in a position of honor. This narrative highlights the creator's relationships with his daughter-goddesses, which are pivotal in this phase of creation.
In Coffin Texts spell 80, Atum bestows new identities upon Shu and Tefnut, naming Shu as Life and Tefnut as Maat, representing truth and order. By naming these qualities, Atum brings them into existence and embraces Tefnut and Maat. Nun, the god of primeval waters, instructs Atum to kiss Maat, symbolizing the importance of order. Maat is not only the creator’s favorite daughter but also embodies the governing principle of the created world, countering chaos (isfet).
The narrative continues with Shu and Tefnut uniting in the first sexual union, leading to the birth of Geb, the earth, and Nut, the sky. Geb and Nut's closeness prevents the existence of anything between them, leading to a need for further separation. To facilitate creation, Shu separates them, lifting Nut above him and placing Geb beneath his feet, a scene depicted in funerary art.
Shu’s act creates a space for life, allowing the sun to rise for the first time and dispelling darkness. This moment marks the creator’s manifestation as the sun god Ra. The physical world is established, surrounded by primeval waters, while Shu and Tefnut symbolize two types of time: Shu as Eternal Recurrence and Tefnut as Eternal Sameness. Their separation allows for the birth of deities like Osiris, Seth, Isis, and Nephthys, along with Geb, Nut, Shu, and Tefnut, collectively forming the Ennead of Heliopolis. Seth's chaotic nature links him to disorder, marking his birth as the introduction of strife. The Ennead represents a foundational group of gods, symbolizing the entire pantheon. Other deities are said to originate from Atum’s spoken words or bodily substances, populating a world filled with various creatures, including humanity.
 |
| Detail from the Greenfield Papyrus (the Book of the Dead of Nesitanebtashru). It depicts the air god Shu, assisted by the ram-headed Heh deities, supporting the sky goddess Nut as the earth god Geb reclines beneath | Date: Photograph published 1997; artwork created c. 950 BCE | Source: What Life Was Like on the Banks of the Nile, edited by Denise Dersin | Author: Photographed by the British Museum; original artist unknown |
The Creation of Humanity
The creation of humanity in Egyptian mythology is a complex and multifaceted topic, where narratives and texts vary significantly. Unlike many other mythologies, humanity does not occupy a central position in Egyptian myth. In fact, some creation accounts entirely omit humans, with references to them appearing only in passing, such as in the Memphite Theology, where they are mentioned alongside cattle. The Egyptians categorized sentient beings into four types: gods, kings, spirits of the dead, and living people. This hierarchy suggests that humans were seen as less significant than gods.Another narrative suggests that humanity resulted from the creator's tears during a moment of anger, resulting in a temporary blindness that symbolized a loss of creative insight. This portrays humans as imperfect beings, destined to play a rebellious role in mythology. Several hymns to creator gods like Amun and Ptah describe the process of creating humanity, often stating that people were fashioned "in his own image." However, unlike deities, who were said to be made of precious materials, humans were formed from mud or clay, highlighting their humbler nature.
Khnum, the god of creation, is portrayed as continually crafting human bodies on his potter’s wheel. He shapes each individual before birth, emphasizing a divine oversight over humanity's existence. This suggests a more profound relationship between deities and humans, as humanity is divided into two genders from the beginning, contrary to other ancient myths where women are often seen as afterthoughts.
Many Egyptian chronologies start with a mythical era where creator gods directly governed Egypt and the world. This creator was believed to reside in a palace in Egypt, viewed as the most cherished part of his creation. Various cultures share myths of a lost golden age ruled by divine beings, though the Egyptian narrative only partially aligns with this idea. Under Ra's reign, gods like Maat lived on earth, and the creator actively cared for his creation. Ideally, everything should have aligned with divine order, but two significant factors disrupted this period of harmony: Ra's gradual aging and the ensuing plots and rebellions against him. Since peace and joy don't typically foster compelling narratives, myths from this era primarily revolve around Ra's decline.
The aging of Ra is detailed in a tale known as "Isis and Ra" or "the True Name of Ra." Although this story appears in few sources, it reflects the theological speculations prevalent in New Kingdom hymns dedicated to the creator.
Hathor pursued the guilty humans, slaughtering many and reveling in their blood. Upon her return, Ra proclaimed he would continue to exercise his power over them. However, he later changed his mind, ordering messengers to fetch a red mineral and brewing 7,000 jars of beer mixed with it to resemble blood. When Hathor arrived, she drank the beer, mistaking it for blood, and became drunk, forgetting her mission to destroy humanity.
The aftermath is ambiguous; it suggests Ra may have wished to spare innocent humans, while those who fled became known as the Enemies of Ra, tormented in the afterlife. The text reflects a division among humans, with the Followers of Horus being good and the Followers of Seth being bad, justifying divine violence.
The rebellion against Ra continued, culminating in the defeat of the Nubian rebels, led by Seth. The goddess Isis also killed the Followers of Seth, highlighting a recurring theme of violence. Ultimately, Ra decided to leave Earth, with Nut transformed into a cow to carry him to the heavens, marking the onset of death as humanity began to fight for order. Ra then placed Osiris in charge of humanity and appointed Thoth to oversee the night sky, signaling the era of lesser gods ruling the world.
Khnum, the god of creation, is portrayed as continually crafting human bodies on his potter’s wheel. He shapes each individual before birth, emphasizing a divine oversight over humanity's existence. This suggests a more profound relationship between deities and humans, as humanity is divided into two genders from the beginning, contrary to other ancient myths where women are often seen as afterthoughts.
 |
Khnum (left) fashions the god Ihy (middle) on a potter's wheel, with the help of the goddess Heqet, Dendera Temple.
Date: 21 December 2020, 10:24:29 | Source: Panegyrics of Granovetter | Author: Panegyrics of Granovetter
Period of Direct Rule by the Creator Sun God
In ancient Egyptian mythology, the creator sun god, often identified as Ra, ruled the earth for an extensive period, during which there was no distinction between gods and people. However, as Ra aged, some deities began to challenge his authority. The goddess Isis devised a plan to ensure her unborn son would inherit Ra's power. In the midst of familial conflict, the Eye of Ra initially quarreled with her but ultimately returned to protect him. When humanity rebelled against Ra's rule, he dispatched his Eye to punish the wrongdoers and retreated to the sky.Many Egyptian chronologies start with a mythical era where creator gods directly governed Egypt and the world. This creator was believed to reside in a palace in Egypt, viewed as the most cherished part of his creation. Various cultures share myths of a lost golden age ruled by divine beings, though the Egyptian narrative only partially aligns with this idea. Under Ra's reign, gods like Maat lived on earth, and the creator actively cared for his creation. Ideally, everything should have aligned with divine order, but two significant factors disrupted this period of harmony: Ra's gradual aging and the ensuing plots and rebellions against him. Since peace and joy don't typically foster compelling narratives, myths from this era primarily revolve around Ra's decline.
The aging of Ra is detailed in a tale known as "Isis and Ra" or "the True Name of Ra." Although this story appears in few sources, it reflects the theological speculations prevalent in New Kingdom hymns dedicated to the creator.
The Destruction of Humanity
After Ra became the ruler of gods and men, humanity conspired against him as he aged, transforming physically with silver bones, golden flesh, and lapis-lazuli hair. Aware of their plot, Ra summoned his divine followers, including Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, and Nun, seeking their counsel. They advised him to unleash his Eye against the rebels in the form of Hathor.Hathor pursued the guilty humans, slaughtering many and reveling in their blood. Upon her return, Ra proclaimed he would continue to exercise his power over them. However, he later changed his mind, ordering messengers to fetch a red mineral and brewing 7,000 jars of beer mixed with it to resemble blood. When Hathor arrived, she drank the beer, mistaking it for blood, and became drunk, forgetting her mission to destroy humanity.
The aftermath is ambiguous; it suggests Ra may have wished to spare innocent humans, while those who fled became known as the Enemies of Ra, tormented in the afterlife. The text reflects a division among humans, with the Followers of Horus being good and the Followers of Seth being bad, justifying divine violence.
The rebellion against Ra continued, culminating in the defeat of the Nubian rebels, led by Seth. The goddess Isis also killed the Followers of Seth, highlighting a recurring theme of violence. Ultimately, Ra decided to leave Earth, with Nut transformed into a cow to carry him to the heavens, marking the onset of death as humanity began to fight for order. Ra then placed Osiris in charge of humanity and appointed Thoth to oversee the night sky, signaling the era of lesser gods ruling the world.
Period of Rule by Other Gods
After the creator withdrew, a succession of gods ruled the earth, often facing violent power struggles. Osiris, the son of Geb, was chosen king of Egypt and ruled alongside his sister, Isis. Their reign ended due to the jealousy of their brother, Seth, who murdered Osiris and mutilated his body. Using magic, Isis revived Osiris long enough to conceive their son, Horus, before fleeing to the marshes to give birth. Seth and his followers frequently attacked both Horus and Osiris’s body. Horus eventually confronted Seth for control of Egypt, leading to numerous battles where both gods suffered injuries. Thoth restored Horus’s damaged Eye, and ultimately, Horus triumphed, becoming king of Egypt and reconciling with Seth. Horus also performed rites that allowed Osiris to rise as the king of the Underworld, and he was succeeded by a lineage of gods and demigods.The Reigns of Shu, Geb, and Osiris
Egyptian king lists trace the ancestry of kings back to a mythical age lasting over 11,000 years, as noted in Manetho’s history. The order of divine rulers varies, with deities like Ptah or Ra often listed as ancestors, while some sources name Osiris or Horus as the first kings. The Great Ennead is portrayed as a ruling group, suggesting a later rationalization of royal succession. Hymns to Shu in the Harris Magical Papyrus celebrate him as the king of Upper and Lower Egypt.
The myth of Shu’s separation of Geb and Nut reflects human-like rivalries. Tensions arise when Geb challenges Shu’s leadership, leading to conflicts that include Geb’s separation from Tefnut and his disputes over the throne. Geb ultimately becomes the accepted ruler, tasked with defending Egypt against chaos, though his reign is not seen as peaceful.
Osiris, Geb’s eldest son, inherits the throne but is often vaguely depicted as a good king with Isis as his protector. By the Old Kingdom's end, all deceased kings were linked to Osiris, whose reign might be considered a later development. Greek writers later portrayed Osiris and Isis as cultural heroes who civilized the world, acknowledging the cultural influence of Egypt. However, for the Egyptians, civilization was inherent in the creator’s establishment of maat.
The murder was seen as a unique crime, yet Osiris’s death had theological significance—it allowed him to become ruler of the underworld, giving life to others. In The Book of the Dead, Osiris laments his fate, but the creator god Atum consoles him by granting him an eternal kingdom in the afterlife, while his son Horus rules the living. Despite efforts to portray Osiris's death positively, his loneliness and despair stand out.
Initially, Osiris's death was portrayed as occurring in isolation, but classical writers like Diodorus Siculus and Plutarch changed the story to a public assassination. Diodorus claims Seth (called Typhon) dismembered Osiris’s body, distributing parts to his followers, while Plutarch describes a plot where Seth trapped Osiris in a chest, marking the end of his reign.
Seth’s followers tried to fit in the chest, but none succeeded. When Osiris lay inside, they sealed it and threw it into the Nile, where it was carried to the Mediterranean. Isis, sensing Osiris' death, began her search and traced the chest to Byblos in Lebanon, where it had transformed into a tree. After retrieving the chest, Isis brought it back to Egypt, but Seth discovered the body and tore it into pieces. Isis found and buried each part. Despite the loss of one part, she managed to revive Osiris and conceived their son, Horus. This myth highlights Isis as a devoted wife who revives her husband, becoming integral to Egyptian funerary rites, with other gods aiding in protecting Osiris' body.
The myth of Shu’s separation of Geb and Nut reflects human-like rivalries. Tensions arise when Geb challenges Shu’s leadership, leading to conflicts that include Geb’s separation from Tefnut and his disputes over the throne. Geb ultimately becomes the accepted ruler, tasked with defending Egypt against chaos, though his reign is not seen as peaceful.
Osiris, Geb’s eldest son, inherits the throne but is often vaguely depicted as a good king with Isis as his protector. By the Old Kingdom's end, all deceased kings were linked to Osiris, whose reign might be considered a later development. Greek writers later portrayed Osiris and Isis as cultural heroes who civilized the world, acknowledging the cultural influence of Egypt. However, for the Egyptians, civilization was inherent in the creator’s establishment of maat.
The Murder of Osiris
The death of Osiris is a central but obscure event in Egyptian mythology. Detailed accounts of his murder didn’t emerge until the late first millennium BCE, often from foreign sources. The Pyramid Texts identify Seth as Osiris's killer, possibly out of revenge. Later stories suggest sexual jealousy between the brothers. Some scholars argue that Osiris was originally a god of the dead, but once his death was accepted, a killer was necessary. Seth is often depicted as a dangerous animal, such as a bull or crocodile, who attacked Osiris in a remote place. Texts mention Osiris being trampled or thrown into the Nile, with drowning later becoming the common cause of death.The murder was seen as a unique crime, yet Osiris’s death had theological significance—it allowed him to become ruler of the underworld, giving life to others. In The Book of the Dead, Osiris laments his fate, but the creator god Atum consoles him by granting him an eternal kingdom in the afterlife, while his son Horus rules the living. Despite efforts to portray Osiris's death positively, his loneliness and despair stand out.
Initially, Osiris's death was portrayed as occurring in isolation, but classical writers like Diodorus Siculus and Plutarch changed the story to a public assassination. Diodorus claims Seth (called Typhon) dismembered Osiris’s body, distributing parts to his followers, while Plutarch describes a plot where Seth trapped Osiris in a chest, marking the end of his reign.
Seth’s followers tried to fit in the chest, but none succeeded. When Osiris lay inside, they sealed it and threw it into the Nile, where it was carried to the Mediterranean. Isis, sensing Osiris' death, began her search and traced the chest to Byblos in Lebanon, where it had transformed into a tree. After retrieving the chest, Isis brought it back to Egypt, but Seth discovered the body and tore it into pieces. Isis found and buried each part. Despite the loss of one part, she managed to revive Osiris and conceived their son, Horus. This myth highlights Isis as a devoted wife who revives her husband, becoming integral to Egyptian funerary rites, with other gods aiding in protecting Osiris' body.
 |
| Relief of the raising of the god Osiris by the goddess Isis in the mortuary temple of Seti I in Abydos, Egypt | Date: 6 March 2011 | Source: Own work | Author: Olaf Tausch |
The Birth and Childhood of Horus
After a ten-month pregnancy, Isis gives birth to her son, Horus, who is often distinguished as Horus, son of Isis, to differentiate him from Horus the Elder, the sky god. Horus is said to be born in the Delta, particularly in Chemmis. To protect him from enemies, he was hidden in a papyrus thicket or on a floating island, known as the "nest of Horus." This mythical location appears in Egyptian art, depicting kings as the child Horus in the marshes, being nurtured by a cow, usually identified with Hathor, the mother of Horus the Elder.Various deities were believed to protect Horus whenever Isis was absent. Magical texts often included themes of Horus being poisoned, typically by a snake bite, with Seth often seen as the instigator. In these spells, Isis seeks help from her parents, Nut and Geb, and the creator sun god to heal her child. The Metternich Stela and similar artifacts portray Horus triumphing over dangerous creatures, many associated with Seth. Some texts even blame Horus’s mischief, like eating a sacred fish, for his troubles. Despite his youth and impetuosity, Horus ultimately seeks to avenge his father's death and claim the crown of Egypt.
The Triumph of Horus
The cosmic conflict between Osiris and Seth required a Divine Tribunal to establish justice, typically presided over by Geb and the creator sun god. The Tribunal, often held in Heliopolis, hears two main cases: one where Osiris sues Seth, with Isis and Nephthys supporting him. Seth fails to justify his violence, and Osiris is vindicated, transforming into the ruler of the underworld rather than returning to earthly life. In some accounts, Seth is humiliated by being forced to carry Osiris’s body to its tomb, which remains a source of power.In another version, the dispute is between Horus and Seth. Various deities support both sides, with Osiris sending messages from the underworld to aid Horus. While Seth claims strength, Horus argues for his rightful place in succession, a theme reflecting the historical significance of might versus right in Egypt. Different endings exist for the myth due to the fluctuating status of Seth. Ultimately, the Tribunal divides Egypt, granting Lower Egypt to Horus and Upper Egypt to Seth, symbolizing their unity in royal art.
In later texts, Horus is depicted as receiving all of Egypt. During a time when Seth was revered, he is shown living with Ra as a storm god. However, other versions suggest Seth faces punishment, often executed by Horus and Isis. Rituals celebrating Horus's triumph include the symbolic cutting of a hippopotamus, reminiscent of Osiris’s dismemberment.
Horus’s coronation involves performing rituals for Osiris, reinforcing the legitimacy of royal succession. While Osiris appears weak without his heir, he is also portrayed as a powerful figure created by Atum. The “time of Horus” symbolizes an era of peace, followed in king lists by deities like Thoth and Maat, ultimately merging myth with history.
 |
| Wall relief of fight between Seth and Horus , helped by Isis, kills Seth (hippopotamus), temple of Edfu, Egypt | Date: 9 June 2009 | Source: Own work | Author: Rémih |
Period of Rule by Kings
Dynasties of gods and demigods were succeeded by dynasties of human kings who acted as intermediaries between humanity and the gods. This period corresponds with the time span of Pharaonic history. Gods and goddesses mainly communicated with people through temple rituals, oracles, or dreams, though deities might still be encountered beyond the boundaries of the Black Land. Most humans could only enter the divine realm by dying, but stories were told of priest-magicians who had the power to pass between the worlds of the living and the dead. The king was responsible for upholding the divine order in the world of the living. Failure to obey the laws of maat could lead to periods of chaos. These only ended when a new royal champion of maat arose. The gods might intervene in history by fathering such hero-kings. Once the gods had withdrawn, humanity had to play an active role, through ritual and ethical behavior, in keeping any kind of divine presence on earth. Regular offerings and elaborate rites ensured that deities were present in statues or sacred animals kept in temples, but their true forms were thought to be in the divine realm. On temple walls, kings are shown perpetually interacting with the gods, but specific communications from a deity to an individual king are usually described as coming in the form of a dream or a portent. The best-known example is King Thutmose IV’s dream encounter with the deity manifest in the Great Sphinx at Giza. Similar dreams were occasionally recorded by private individuals of the elite class. It was probably the ba of a person that was thought to be able to enter the divinerealm in sleep and converse with gods and spirits. Ordinary Egyptians did not expect to meet their deities until after they had died.
For those who prefer visual content, you can watch the video below that covers the same topic in detail.