Legal Rights and Social Status of Women
In ancient Egyptian society, women enjoyed legal rights equal to those of men of the same social class. Paranoiac Egypt was not only a male-dominated society where women were viewed by men as mere reproductive machines. Rather, it was a society in which they were allowed to exercise a measure of freedom. However, the main functions of Egyptian women were marriage and housekeeping Most women's occupations inevitably influenced the status that men gave them and thus influenced men's attitudes towards them. Throughout history, men have had jobs outside the domestic sphere. They played a role in public affairs. They placed a high value on their own activities and were in a position to convince society that they deserved a higher status than women.
Statue of Nofret, Wife of Prince Rahotep – Egyptian Museum, Cairo
Source: Own work | Author: Djehouty
Artistic Representation of Women
However, the Egyptian artist rarely indulged in “art for art's sake "almost every work produced was either for domestic use such as decorative pieces of furniture or jewelry, or for use in a religious or funerary context. Statues were placed in tombs to replace the body if it was damaged or destroyed, as the preservation of the body was considered necessary for its continued existence in the afterlife. Considering the purposes of Egyptian art, the way women were portrayed was not random or usually left to the artist's discretion or inspiration. The owners of private tombs were usually men - women were generally buried with their closest male relatives. He was usually portrayed as an idealized sportsman in the prime of life, although in reality he may have been quite the opposite. Like her husband, the tomb owner's wife was idealized, she seems to have been idealized not only by the traditions of Egyptian art but also by men's perceptions of women.One convention was that in painted reliefs and statues a woman's flesh should be a creamy yellow, whereas for men it should be reddish-brown. The creamy colour of women's flesh is probably to be taken as an indication that women had less exposure to the sun since they would have spent more time indoors or under shade engaged in 'women's activities', rather than as an indication of men's preference. Even so, the element of preference for a soft skin rather than one roughened by exposure to the elements is not to be dismissed.Women in Tomb Reliefs and Statues
According to another artistic convention the figure of the most important person in a relief should be the largest in it, and in many reliefs, wives are depicted very much smaller in scale than their husbands: the husband, after all, was usually the tomb-owner. There are exceptions to this convention, especially among royal ladies who, presumably because of their royal status, achieved equal representation with their husbands. In many statue groups a man is represented with his wife, or with his wife and their children, or sometimes with his mother. Although the larger build of the man presumably reflected a real physical difference between the sexes, in some groups, particularly of the Old Kingdom, the distinction is very marked. The wife is depicted as literally 'the little woman', kneeling at her husband's feet and also sculpted on a much smaller scale than he.A less obvious way of indicating a wife's lower status is that in statue groups she is generally depicted sitting at her husband's left side, thought to be inferior to the right. Individual statues of women are relatively rare, especially at the beginning of Egyptian history. One very fine example is the black granite life-sized statue of the Lady Sennuwy, dated to about 1950 BC. She sits on a stone block with her hands on her knees, with a confident and serene expression on her face. As this type of pose was normally reserved for men, one must suppose that Sennuwy was an unusually privileged lady.
Age, with its supposed accumulation of wisdom, was seen as a desirable quality in a man but not in a woman. Hence statues of men show them with rolls of fat around their midriffs, earned over many years of good living. Women on the other hand are represented as slim and youthful; and even the mother of a man, when she appears in tomb depictions with his wife, appears to be the same age as what, in most cases, must have been the younger woman.
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| Relief from the limestone sarcophagus of Ashit, 11th Dynasty – Date: 8 December 2007, 21:53 (UTC) | Source: Egypt Archive | Author: Jon Bodsworth |
In tomb reliefs the wife, or sometimes the mother, of the deceased is always depicted in a formal manner, usually seated at his side. She is never represented in an undignified manner; but then, of course, neither is he. Only servants, workmen and foreigners are represented informally, the servants and workmen going about their everyday work. Thus servant women are depicted spinning, weaving, making bread and beer and performing menial tasks: the lady of the house sits at leisure in her elegant dress on a chair or a stool. Occasionally she is depicted accompanying her husband as he observes his men at work - standing a few steps behind him.
Whenever a woman is shown alongside her husband, whether in statue or relief, she generally has her arm around his waist or over his shoulder: an indication that her role was to be one of encouragement and support.
Statue of Menkaura and Queen Khamerernebty II – Giza Valley Temple, c. 2548-2530 B.C., graywacke.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (11.1738) Source: Own work
Author: Keith Schengili-Roberts | License: CC BY-SA 2.5
In some temples, statues of queens were erected but these always show them in a secondary
role. One of the earliest (c. 2260 BC) is that of Ankhnesmeryre, the mother of Pepi II. It shows Ankhnesmeryre, in large scale, as a mother, with the boy king, in realistic small scale, on her lap. Later on statues of other queens were erected in cult temples, placed there by their husbands as a mark of favour: at Luxor, for example, the queens and daughters of Ramesses II (1304-1238 BC) are depicted in some statue groups, sculpted in small scale against the leg of the king; at Medinet Habu the wives and daughters of Ramesses III (1198-1166 BC) are treated in the same way .
Statue of Princess Meritamen standing before her father, Ramesses II
| Source: Own work | Author: Djehouty
Erotic Imagery in Egyptian Art and Literature
Artistic evidence that women were viewed as sexual objects is not overt: the Egyptians were in any case discreet in their artistic representations of contact with the opposite sex and there are very few depictions of a couple embracing let alone indulging in copulation. There is only one obscene document known so far. This is a papyrus', dating to about 1 150 BC, on which is a set of cartoons, with captions, depicting fat, bald, priapic men in a succession of sexual encounters with one or more women. Similar encounters are the subjects of many ostraca found at the workmen's village at Deir el-Medina.In many reliefs women are shown with their husbands in sitting listening to the playing of musical instruments, perhaps with a pet monkey or a goose under the chair, the woman holding a lotus flower and wearing a heavy wig; or out hunting in the marshes with a duck perched on the front of the skiff. These reliefs, however, contain coded erotic references.
The wig had erotic associations; so did the monkey, the duck and the goose, which some think were related to female sexuality. The lotus meant to the Egyptians what a red rose means to us. Even the musical instruments could have erotic significance.
Love Poetry and Male Perceptions of Women
Egyptian literature, of which a considerable body survives, can help fill out the picture of male perceptions of women. Love poetry complements the evidence of the artistic representations: extolling the physical attributes of a woman was as much a favorite theme of ancient Egyptian poetry as it has always been of the poetry of other times and places. The following extract taken from a love poem illustrates what was, for most Egyptian men, the ideal of feminine beauty. It is the same ideal that is portrayed in sculpture and painting: a woman should be graceful and slim, with a small waist and small, firm breasts, a long neck, a pale skin and blue-black hair.Of surpassing radiance and luminous skin,
With lovely, clear-gazing eyes,
Her lips speak sweetly
With not a word too much.
Her neck is long, her breast is white,
Her hair is true lapis lazuli.
Her arm surpasses gold
And her fingers are like lotus buds.
With rounded thighs and trim waist,
Her legs display her beauty when,
With graceful gait, she treads the earth.
Most ancient Egyptians were illiterate, so that even the love poetry, which seems to be so personal, was actually the work of official scribes and as such was recognized as a formal part of ancient Egyptian literature. The basic love poem takes the form of an address to the heart or to the loved one made in the first person; and the lovers in the poems address each other as 'brother' or 'sister', the conventional ancient Egyptian terms of endearment, not to be taken literally. The following poem illustrates the point perfectly:
My god, my husband, I come to you.
It is pleasant to go into the pool and
I rejoice that you wish me
To plunge in and bathe before you.
I let you see my beauty
In a tunic of fine royal linen
When it is wet.
I go into the water with you
And emerge with a red fish for you
Pulsating in my hands.
I lay it on my breast.
O my man, my brother,
Come and see me!
At first glance the above poem seems to indicate that the status of ancient Egyptian women was such that the speaker in a poem could be female; that it was just as acceptable for her to use erotic imagery in the expression of her feelings as it was for a man. On the other hand it is feasible that it was only male fantasy to suppose that women would express themselves in the phrases used in the poem. Since women did not actually write the poems it is tantalizing to conjecture what their feelings would really have been and how they would have expressed them. Some poems reflect the state to which men suppose women can be reduced by the loved one, the mere sight of whom can distract a woman. As the following poem illustrates, when a woman sees her lover she forgets even what men are pleased to imagine is her most important preoccupation, dressing her hair:
My mind turned to my love for you
When only half of my hair was plaited.
I came running to find you
And forgot about doing my hair.
But if you will release me,
I will finish dressing my hair
And be ready in a minute!
A constant theme of ancient Egyptian love poems is the effect that love has on a woman. Love of a man is the source not only of a woman's happiness but also of her beauty:
My heart is in accord with you.
I do for you whatever it wishes
When I am in your embrace.
My desire for you is my eye-paint -
Looking at you makes my eyes shine.
I nestle close to you at seeing your love,
O man who fills my heart.
How pleasant is this time - May an hour last for eternity.
Since I have been sleeping with you
You have thrilled my heart.
Whether I am sad or happy,
Never leave me!
Wisdom Texts and Instructions
If love poetry presents women in a rosy, idealized light, then other forms of literature offer different stereotypes, many of which are far from flattering. Such views are often expressed in the Wisdom Texts and Instructions, a popular genre of ancient Egyptian literature, which can be an invaluable source of information on attitudes towards women. Some Egyptian men clearly took a somewhat cynical and jaundiced view of the opposite sex. One such was Ankhsheshonq, a priest belonging to the temple of the sun god, Re, at Heliopolis, who is thought to have lived some time between300 BC and 50 BC. In the advice that he gave to his son, Ankhsheshonq was scathing about the intellectual capabilities, morals and worth of women:Let your wife see your wealth, but don't trust her with it.
Never send a mere woman on business for you - she will attend to her own first.
Never confide in your wife - what you say to her goes straight into the street.
Instructing a woman is like owning a sack of sand with a split in the side.
Don't glory in your wife's beauty - her heart is set on her lover.
What she does with her husband today she will do with another man tomorrow.
From the above it is clear that Ankhsheshonq considers women to be unfaithful, untrustworthy, incapable of learning or of keeping secrets. Although some of Ankhsheshonq's sayings have a predictably familiar ring about them and may be dismissed as what in modern parlance would be called 'male chauvinist pig remarks', it would be a mistake to take his less than flattering view of women as typical. In general women, or wives and mothers at least, were referred to in the more respectful terms such as those used by the sages Ptahhotep and Ani . Ani's advice to a husband was Don't boss your wife in her own house when you know she is efficient. Don't keep saying to her 'Where is it? Bring it to me!' Especially when it is in the place where it ought to be!
A clear indication that Ani realized that men also have failings. Many of the Wisdom Texts and Instructions give advice on how men should behave towards women. All seem to assume that there are three kinds of woman: the mother, the wife and the harlot.Wives, on the other hand, fall into two categories: the good and faithful helpmeet, and the nagging gossip who is not only mercenary but also unfaithful. As for the harlot - a man finds it hard to ignore her but is advised to beware! A set of maxims composed probably in the last century BC is contained in a demotic papyrus of the first century AD known as the Insinger Papyrus. Many of the maxims concern relations between the sexes:Do not consort with a woman who consorts with your superior.
If she is beautiful, keep away from her.
Some men dislike intercourse yet spend a fortune on women.
Even a wise man can be harmed by his love for a woman.
The fool who looks at a woman is like a fly on bjood.
If a woman is beautiful you should show your superiority over her.
The work of Mut and Hathor is what acts among women. [Mut
and Hathor were goddesses connected with love, the inference
here being that women have no control over their emotions.]
Negative Attitudes in Wisdom Texts
The Insinger Papyrus merely confirms the impression given by the other Wisdom Texts: that the writers of these documents take a largely negative attitude towards women, viewing them as irrational, dangerous and needing to be dominated. It can only be hoped that the opinions of the writers of the Texts did not reflect male attitudes in general. Some small comfort may be derived from a final quotation from the Insinger Papyrus:It is in women that both good and bad fortune are on earth.
Women in Secular Narratives
Secular narratives throw further light on the stereotypes encountered in the Wisdom literature and elsewhere. In these tales it is men who are the heroes, the initiators of the action. Women play secondary roles, appearing for the most part as stubborn and unreasonable creatures, causing trouble through their vindictive- ness or wicked behaviour. Numerous examples may be cited. The Westcar Papyrus, 5 for instance, dating to about 1674—1587 BC, relates the tale of how a bored King Sneferu decides to go for a boat trip in a craft rowed by twenty beautiful young women dressed only in nets. The king's pleasure is endangered by the stubborn behavi- our of one of the oarswomen when she drops a prized turquoise pendant into the water.Unwilling to accept a replacement she brings the craft to a halt until the hero, Djadjaemankh, uses his magical powers to fold back the waters of the lake allowing the pendant to be retrieved. Another part of the same papyrus tells how a treacherous maidservant who betrays her mistress is, in punish-mcnt, carried off by a crocodile. This truly is a fate worse than death since her body would not have been available for proper burial and, thus, she would have been denied the benefit of an Afterlife.
A similar fate befalls an adulterous wife in another of the Westcar tales. The hero of another story is also brought suffering by the machinations of a wicked woman, although in this case he is partly to blame for his predicament. He is Khamwese, son of Ramesses II and High Priest of Ptah at Memphis. The story tells of how Khamwese, who was reputed to be a great magician, steals a magic book from the tomb of Neneferkaptah and his wife, despite the pleas of their spirits that the book should not be removed from the tomb. It is not long before Khamwese is brought to repent of his deeds by the actions of Tabubu, a beautiful woman whom he greatly desires. Tabubu promises herself to Khamwese but demands in return ever greater sacrifices from him, culminating in the murder of his children.
Finally, just as he is about to bed Tabubu, he wakes up and all is revealed as a horrible dream. Much chastened, Khamwese returns the book to the tomb. Although he has brought his troubles on himself by stealing from a tomb, it is perhaps instructive that the device by which Neneferkaptah brings Khamwese to heel is a beautiful but ruthless woman. One of the morals of this story is that even a wise man like Khamwese can fall prey to a beautiful woman's charms - a theme not unique to ancient Egyptian literature.
Role of Women in Egyptian Religion
In ancient Egyptian religion there were a great many deities, both male and female. Every city, every town, originally every tribe in Egypt had its own gods and goddesses.
In dynastic times kings and priests attempted to develop a unifying concept; hence every ruler promoted his own local god or personal deity to the position of state god, who was considered to be the primeval deity, ancestor of all the other gods. Their elevation to state god meant that these once merely local deities became, universal gods with cult centers throughout Egypt. Thus, in the Old Kingdom {c. 2686-2181 BC) Re of Heliopolis was state god; in the New Kingdom (1551-1085 BC), and after, it was the turn of Amun of Thebes. Atum of Heliopolis, Ptah of Memphis and Horus of Edfu were also worshipped as universal deities. But Egypt never had a state goddess, although Isis and Hathor were universally worshipped. The great creator gods were Atum, Ptah and Re; only one goddess, Neith, had her own creation legend.
The great judges of the dead and gods of the Afterlife were Re, Anubis and Osiris; they had no female counterparts. There were gods of war - Montu and Amun - but no goddesses, although several female deities, notably Sekhmet, Neith, Anat and Bastet, included warlike qualities in their natures. In many cultures an Earth Mother plays a prominent role and is considered to be the most powerful of deities. In Egypt there was no earth goddess, only an earth god - Geb. There were, however, mother goddesses: the sky goddess, Nut, for example, or Amun's wife, Mut; above all, Osiris's wife, Isis. The chief deities concerned with fertility were male - Min, Osiris and Sobek being the most important. A lesser deity- Renenutet, was the only goddess to represent this concept. However, goddesses were the main representatives of love and joy. There was no goddess - or god - of love, but several goddesses, notably Hathor and Bastet, included love among their aspects.
One of the most popular roles for a female deity was that of protectress. The cobra goddess, Edjo, was tutelary goddess of Lower Egypt; her Upper Egyptian counterpart was the vulture goddess Nekhbet. Isis, Nephthys, Neith and Serket had a funerary role, protecting the Canopic jars containing respectively the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines of the dead, or guarding the corners of shrines and sarcophagi. One or two goddesses - Hathor and Isis especially - were particularly concerned with womeri, of whom they were patronesses. Two goddesses were not exclusively concerned with suitably'feminine pursuits' but were associated with more intellectual concepts: Maat was the goddess of justice, truth and social order; Seshat was the goddess of writing and keeper of the royal annals. Maat's role is perhaps indicative of the fact that women were regarded as forces for stability that ancient Egyptian women wene not valued for their intellect, although it was admitted, at least by men, that they had a capacity for cunning.
In dynastic times kings and priests attempted to develop a unifying concept; hence every ruler promoted his own local god or personal deity to the position of state god, who was considered to be the primeval deity, ancestor of all the other gods. Their elevation to state god meant that these once merely local deities became, universal gods with cult centers throughout Egypt. Thus, in the Old Kingdom {c. 2686-2181 BC) Re of Heliopolis was state god; in the New Kingdom (1551-1085 BC), and after, it was the turn of Amun of Thebes. Atum of Heliopolis, Ptah of Memphis and Horus of Edfu were also worshipped as universal deities. But Egypt never had a state goddess, although Isis and Hathor were universally worshipped. The great creator gods were Atum, Ptah and Re; only one goddess, Neith, had her own creation legend.
The great judges of the dead and gods of the Afterlife were Re, Anubis and Osiris; they had no female counterparts. There were gods of war - Montu and Amun - but no goddesses, although several female deities, notably Sekhmet, Neith, Anat and Bastet, included warlike qualities in their natures. In many cultures an Earth Mother plays a prominent role and is considered to be the most powerful of deities. In Egypt there was no earth goddess, only an earth god - Geb. There were, however, mother goddesses: the sky goddess, Nut, for example, or Amun's wife, Mut; above all, Osiris's wife, Isis. The chief deities concerned with fertility were male - Min, Osiris and Sobek being the most important. A lesser deity- Renenutet, was the only goddess to represent this concept. However, goddesses were the main representatives of love and joy. There was no goddess - or god - of love, but several goddesses, notably Hathor and Bastet, included love among their aspects.
One of the most popular roles for a female deity was that of protectress. The cobra goddess, Edjo, was tutelary goddess of Lower Egypt; her Upper Egyptian counterpart was the vulture goddess Nekhbet. Isis, Nephthys, Neith and Serket had a funerary role, protecting the Canopic jars containing respectively the liver, lungs, stomach and intestines of the dead, or guarding the corners of shrines and sarcophagi. One or two goddesses - Hathor and Isis especially - were particularly concerned with womeri, of whom they were patronesses. Two goddesses were not exclusively concerned with suitably'feminine pursuits' but were associated with more intellectual concepts: Maat was the goddess of justice, truth and social order; Seshat was the goddess of writing and keeper of the royal annals. Maat's role is perhaps indicative of the fact that women were regarded as forces for stability that ancient Egyptian women wene not valued for their intellect, although it was admitted, at least by men, that they had a capacity for cunning.
Stereotypes and Social Perceptions
The stereotypes range from goddess to scheming whore, with the Favorite image of woman being that of devoted wife or doting mother. It is perhaps not surprising to learn that in their attitudes towards women, the ancient Egyptians were not so dissimilar from most other societies.
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