How the Babylonians Saw the Universe: Heaven, Earth and Underworld

Etana ascends to heaven

The Sky as a Dome: Babylonian Views of Heaven

 Some distance above the earth is the sky, a solid dome or cap in the shape of a hollow hemisphere that resembles the shape of the earth. The earth and sky rested on a large body of water called apsu, meaning depth. 

According to one view, the edges of the earth turned upward and formed around it a solid wall like a series of steep hills, on which the dome of the sky rested; in the valley between the mountain of the earth and this outer wall of hills, the sea gathered in a narrow stream. This visualization corresponds to some of the statements in the myth of Etana. 

Creation Myths: Marduk and the Birth of the Cosmos 

In the beginning, before the creation of the world, there was only water inhabited by monsters. According to one version of the creation story, the god Bel or Marduk formed the heavens and the earth from the body of a great female monster who dwelt in the depths that he had killed. 

He then split her body in two, making one half the dome of heaven, and the other the earth. Above the dome of heaven was another mass of water, the celestial ocean, which the solid dome of heaven supported and held in place, so that it would not penetrate the earth and swallow it up. 

Marduk and Tiamat

Shamash and His Daily Journey Across the Sky

On the underside of the dome, the stars followed their course and the moon god followed his. In addition, the dome had two gates, one in the east and one in the west, used by Shamash, the sun god, who traveled from one to the other every day across the world. 

Coming from behind the sky dome, he passed through the eastern gate, ascended the Sunrise Mountain at the edge of the world, and began his journey across the sky. In the evening, he arrived at Sunset Mountain, ascended it, passed through the western gate of the sky, and disappeared from human sight.

 According to one account, he made his daily journey across the sky in a chariot driven by two fiery horses. However, in representations on the cylinder seals, he is usually shown making his journey on foot. 

In the next hymn addressed to the sunrise, there is a reference to Shamash's entry into the world from the eastern gate of heaven: 

“Shamash, Shamash, on the foundation of the sky you shone.” You have opened the luminous sky; you have opened the gates of heaven. “Shamash, you have raised your head above the earth.” “Shamash, you have covered the earth with the splendor of the sky.” Another hymn addressed to sunset contains a reference to Shamash's return to the sky:

“Shamash, when you enter the center of heaven, you will be greeted by the luminous lightning of the heavens, 'The gates of heaven will bless you. “The righteousness of your beloved servant will guide you.” “Your dominion will be glorious in Ibapara, the throne of your power, and the sign of your beloved wife will come gladly into your presence and will comfort your heart. “A feast shall be made for you in celebration of your deity.” “O brave and courageous hero, Shamash, mankind will glorify you.” “O Lord Ibapara, your path must be straight.” “Continue on the path that is your sure foundation.” “O Shamash, you are the judge of the world, you guide its decisions.” 

Every evening when Shamash enters the inner part of the sky, he is greeted by Aya, his wife, and he eats and rests from his labors in the dwelling place of the gods. 

Utu in the mountains

Beyond the Dome: Realms of the Gods 

Beyond the heavens that humans can see, beyond the celestial space supported by the sky dome, lies a mysterious realm of transcendent splendor and beauty, the world of Krip Shem, or “the deepest part of the sky,” where the great gods sometimes dwell far from humans. 

The general rule was that the greater number of gods dwelt on earth, each in his own city and shrine, and each was thought to be concerned with the welfare of his worshippers, but at any time they could ascend to heaven if they wished. “Thus, the goddess Ishtar used to dwell in the ancient city of Erek, but when she thought that the hero Gilgamesh had insulted her divinity, she immediately ascended to heaven and demanded revenge from her father and mother Anu, the god of heaven and his wife. 

Again, the flood that Marduk sent on earth, in addition to destroying humanity, also flooded the shrines and temples of the gods who inhabited the earth, driving them away and fleeing in fear to heaven, the kingdom of Anu. 

However, the gods did not leave the earth except in rare cases, and according to this rule, the Council of the Gods - the chamber of the gods where fate is decided - was not in heaven but on earth. The name of this chamber was Obshukinaku, and the gods would gather here when they were summoned to a general council. 

This chamber was supposed to be located in the east, on the Mountain of the Rising Sun, not far from the edge of the world where it was surrounded by the waters of the great deep. 

The Underworld: Life After Death in Babylonian Belief 

We have already noted that the Babylonians believed that the earth was in the shape of a great hemisphere, and we must now add that they believed that the hollow interior of the earth was filled with the waters of the deep, on which it also rested.

 However, the earth's layer was not considered a thin crust. On the contrary, it was thought that the solid crust of the Earth, though hollow, was of great thickness. 

The House of the Dead and the Land of No Return 

Within this crust, which formed the “Mountain of the World,” deep within the earth's surface was a great underground cave called Akalu, and this cave was the abode of the dead. In this area was the great House of the Dead, which was surrounded by seven walls; these walls were so strongly built and so heavily guarded by the Underworld beings and their guards that no one who entered them could ever hope to return to Earth; in fact, another name for Aralo, or the Underworld, was Mat La Tari, “the land of no return.” 

The House of the Dead was dark and gloomy, and the dead lived a miserable and tired life. They never saw the light of the sun but sat in unchanging darkness. Their only food was dirt and mud, and thick dust filled everything. 

The Babylonians had no hope for a happy life after death, nor did they imagine a paradise where the deceased would live a life similar to the one, they had lived on earth. They made no distinction between the righteous and the unrighteous, the good and the bad, and believed that everyone would share a common fate and descend to the same level after death. 

Ereshkigal, Nergal, and the Lords of the Dead 

The gods who ruled this dark realm of the dead were called Alato or Ereshkigal and were related to the god Nergal in his persona as god of the dead. Ereshkigal ruled the realm of the dead. Ereshkigal's prime minister was Namtar, the demon of plague and disease, who acted as her messenger and carried out her orders. Ereshkigal's decrees were written by a goddess named Pelit Tsiri, “Lady of the Desert,” and the main gatekeeper guarding her entrance was a god named Nido. 

The Anunnaki or “earth spirits” often acted under the orders of Nergal Ereshkigal as well. In addition to these main deities. The Babylonians may not have differed from the Egyptians in any matter more conspicuous than in the treatment of the dead. In the damp, clayey soil of Mesopotamia the bodies of the dead decomposed rapidly, and in the absence of ranges of hills such as those on either side of the Nile Valley, it was impossible to make rock-hewn tombs in which the bodies of the dead could be preserved. 

This fact may have been due to ideas of the dismal life the Babylonians believed they would live when they moved beyond death. On the contrary, the greatest misfortune that could befall a person would be to be denied a burial, because in this case it was believed that his shadow would not reach Aralu, and that he would have to wander the earth in discomfort, where he would be forced by the pangs of hunger to eat and drink any excrement.

Ghosts and the Fear of the Unburied 

But not burying the body was not without danger to the living, for the dead man's shadow as it wandered the earth could bewitch anyone it met and cause serious illness. The wandering man's shadow was called an ikemo or ghost, and magicians and sorcerers said they could cast a spell by which the ikemo could harass the man. 

On the other hand, the ikemo would sometimes settle on a man of its own accord, hoping that its victim would bury it and free itself from its grasp. A strange incantation was supposed to be recited by the man who was possessed by the ikemo, and from this we know that a man who was afflicted with such a disease might cry out loudly in pain, saying: - “O Shamash, O Marduk, save me, and through your mercy let me rest.

 O Shamash, a terrible ghost has fixed my back for many days and will not escape its hold upon me. All day long it harasses me, and in the season of night it strikes me with terror. It sends pollution, and makes the hair on my head stand, “takes the strength from my body, and makes my eyes dart,” torments my back, poisons my body, “torments my whole body.” 

The sick man prays in despair to Shamash to deliver him from the akimu, whoever it may be, saying: “Whether it is the ghost of one of my family and kinsmen,” or the ghost of one who has been killed, “or whether it is the ghost of any other man who haunts me.” 

“And to ensure the ghost’s departure to the underworld, he then makes the necessary offerings that will cause the soul of the unburied man to depart, saying: “A garment to cover him, and shoes for his feet, and a belt for his waist, and a water skin to drink,” and as food for his journey I give him. 

“Let him travel to the west,” to Nidu, the chief guardian of the underworld, I give him. “Let Nidu, the chief guardian of the underworld, keep him safe.” 

It is clear, then, that for their own benefit, as well as for the deceased, the man’s friends and relatives took care to bury him with respect, and ensured his safe journey to the underworld by placing offerings of meat and drink in the grave to sustain him on the way; perhaps these offerings were also intended to ease his grief after he reached his gloomy abode in the underworld. 

Not many details have come down to us of the rituals performed at the grave, but we do know that after the man’s death his house was filled with mourners, both male and female. 

Burial Practices and Rituals for the Departed 

The burial of the dead with the accompanying rituals and offerings was practiced in Babylonia from ancient times, as is attested by a representation on a stela erected to record the victories of Eannadu, an ancient king of the city of Shirpurla, who probably ruled before 4000 B.C.

On a fragment of this stela is a representation of the burial of these warriors who fell in battle. The dead are placed in rows, alternating from head to foot, and a mound of earth is raised over them; “Their companions are shown carrying baskets containing more earth for the mound, or perhaps funeral offerings for the dead. 

On the monuments of the later kings of Babylon and Assyria we find no representation of the burial rites, but in a broken inscription of a later king of Assyria, whose name has unfortunately not been preserved, we have a brief but very interesting account of the ceremony he performed in burying his father. 

Royal Tombs and the Protection of Kings 

He says, “Inside the tomb, the ‘secret place,’ ‘in royal oil,’ ‘I laid him gently. **The tomb stone, *‘his resting place. ‘With strong bronze, *‘I sealed his entrance,’ ‘I protected him with a charm. **Vessels of gold and silver, “such as my father loved,” “all the furniture worthy of the tomb, “the right due to his lordship, I presented before the sun god, and beside the father who gave birth to me,” “I placed them in the tomb. 

“I have made gifts to the princes, to the spirits of the earth, and to the gods who inhabit the tomb,” “From this we learn that the king placed vessels of gold and silver in the tomb as a sacrifice of dedication, and after closing the entrance to the tomb, he cast a powerful spell to prevent the tomb from being violated by robbers; he also made offerings to appease the demons and the inhabitants of the underworld. 

There is sufficient evidence that the Babylonians took great care of their dead and were careful to bury them, and it is all the more surprising that in the many excavations carried out in Mesopotamia we find that relatively few tombs have been discovered. Of the tombs that have been found, some were built of brick and were in the form of small, vaulted chambers, while others had a flat or vaulted roof supported by a brick frame; in addition to these tombs, a few clay coffins and burial jars have been found. 

A small number of vases and perhaps some simple objects used in the bath are usually found with the skeletons in the tombs; but as no inscriptions have been found on these tombs or on any of the objects found in them, it is extremely difficult to give an approximate date for them; indeed, some have readily attributed them to a period much later than the Old Babylonian and Assyrian empires.