What Are Canopic Containers?
Objects intended as containers for internal organs removed during the mummification process are generally called canopic. They consist of jars and boxes as well as miniature sarcophagi and masks. It refers to all kinds of vessels intended to hold the viscera taken for mummification in ancient Egypt.
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| Hildesheim, Roemer- and Pelizaeus-Museum, canopic jars of the sons of Horus ; Date: 11 June 2019; Source: Own work; Author: Dguendel |
The Deities Associated with the Four Main Organs
Since the end of the Old Kingdom, the four main organs that were removed became associated with a particular deity.
(1) The liver was identified with Imseti, one of the four sons of Horus, who could claim protection from the goddess Isis.
(2) For the lungs, the pairing was Hapi and the goddess Nephthys.
(3) for the stomach, the third son Duamutef and the goddess Neith.
(4) for the intestines, the fourth son Qebehsenuef and the goddess Selket. Those from the middle of the New Kingdom are usually recognizable by their heads: Imseti has a human figure; Hapi a baboon figure; Duamutef a jackal figure; Qebehsenuef a falcon figure.
The Origins of Canopic Products
The earliest canopic products placed bundles of dried and wrapped entrails directly into a specially constructed box or cavity in the wall. Although such canopic niches are found at Saqqara in Second Dynasty tombs, the first clear examples date to the Fourth Dynasty (ca. 2649-2609 BCE), where a number of tombs at Meidum contain niches whose size and location (which match later canopic use) indicate that they were canopic boxes. A real box was provided for Sneferu's wife, carved from a block of Egyptian alabaster and divided into four square compartments, each containing a block that was almost certainly part of her internal organs soaked in a solution of natron.Canopic Practices During the Fourth Dynasty
During the Fourth Dynasty, it became established that canopic vessels should be placed at the southern end of the body, often skewed slightly to the southeast. These vessels were usually cubic niches in the chamber wall or cut into the floor. Niches and petroglyphs inside burial chambers may have contained wooden boxes; by the end of the Fourth Dynasty, organs were sometimes placed in simple stone or clay urns with flat lids.
The earliest of these canopic urns are from the tomb of Queen Meresankh of the Fourth Dynasty, during the reign of King Menkaure (ca. 2551-2523). Early caskets were usually cut from soft stone or in the texture of the wall or floor of the burial chamber. From the beginning of the Sixth Dynasty, however, granite examples began to be found in royal tombs sunk into earth pits southeast of the foot of the sarcophagus. Fragments of a canopic urn and its complete contents were recovered from the tomb of Bepi I (r. 2354-2310 BC). The wrapped entrails had been soaked in resin and frozen into the shape of the jar's interior.
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| Hildesheim, Roemer- and Pelizaeus-Museum, canopic jar of Seschem-nefer III Date: 11 June 2019, Source: Own work, Author: Dguendel |
Materials and Innovations in Canopic Jars During the Early Medieval Period
During the Early Medieval period, a number of innovations emerged. Most notably, canopic jars began to carry a human-headed lid instead of flat or domed lids. At the same time, wrapped bundles of entrails were occasionally decorated with cartonage masks, and again with human faces. During this period, human heads and faces seem to have represented the dead. Previously, the inscriptions were limited to the name and surname of the deceased, but the wooden canopic boxes now followed the design of contemporary coffins: Chains of texts ran around the top. The close association between the design of the canopic box and the sarcophagus or sarcophagus continued in most cases until the latter part of the New Kingdom.
Evolution of Canopic Furnishings by the Middle and New Kingdoms
By the end of the Middle Kingdom, a basic idealized model for canopic furnishings was reached. The outer stone box mirrored the design of the sarcophagus; the inner box, made of wood, mirrored the design of the sarcophagus. The texts of the wooden box summoned each of the four dominant deities to wrap their protective arms around the designated section and proclaim the deceased's honor before them. Inside the wooden box were four human-lidded urns, one for each part, with texts repeating the sentiments expressed on the box. A typical example of such a text, from the Canopic Imseti (liver) urn of King Hor Awibre of the Thirteenth Dynasty, reads Isis, extend your protection about Imsety who is in you, O honoured before Imsety, the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Awibre [Hor]. Not all burials conform to this idealized model, but the existence of a pattern of canopic urns and boxes is confirmed by the appearance of painted images of urns complete with texts on the inner lid of one box whose size showed that it contained only simple bundles of viscera - the box of King Sobekemsaf II.Changes in Canopic Practices from the Seventeenth to the Eighteenth Dynasties
During the Seventeenth Dynasty, the period that saw the final replacement of the rectangular sarcophagus with a human-shaped one, new decorations for the canopic box, centered around a recumbent statue of the god Anubis, began to appear. Early examples mimicked the latest set of rectangular sarcophagi with a black lacquered background, while later examples were decorated on a plain gesso floor. These boxes also had exaggeratedly domed lids.
At the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the decoration of the canopic boxes changed again, focusing on the images of the four gods and their idols. The shape of the boxes also evolved. Usually mounted on a sled, the top of the box was fitted with a flared rim, while the lid was rounded at the front and sloped downward to the back. The color schemes followed those found on contemporary wooden coffins and sarcophagi: starting with a white background, then moving to yellow/gold on black, and then to polychrome on yellow at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty.
Initially, Canopic jars followed Middle Kingdom models, but as the New Kingdom progressed, more and more sets of lids included animal and bird heads, replacing the standardized human faces used in earlier jars. This change resulted from the New Kingdom's modification of the iconography of three of the four Canopic icons. It also marked a decisive shift from an urn depicting a dead person to the personification of a related character. Various materials were used to make Canopic urns during the 18th Dynasty, including calcite, limestone, pottery, and wood.
Until the late Eighteenth Dynasty, placing masks on visceral bundles was a cheap alternative to using urns; however, some particularly rich tombs from the Eighteenth Dynasty contained both - a fine example is the canopic material from the Tjuiu tomb of Amenhotep III's mother-in-law Tjuiu. It was equipped with a naos-shaped box, painted in black paint, with gilded divine texts and images. Inside the box were four calcite jars with human lids with long texts filled with black pigment. Inside were stuffed bundles in the shape of mummies; over the “head” of each was a gilded cartonnage mask.
Innovations in Royal Canopic Equipment from the Eighteenth Dynasty Onwards
Prior to the New Kingdom, royal canopic ware generally followed modern private practice in their basic forms, but from the reign of Amenhotep II (r. 1454-1419 BC) onwards there was a marked difference. The earliest royal chests of the Eighteenth Dynasty, that of Queen Hatshepsut (r. 1502-1482 BC) and that made by Thutmose III (r. 1504-1452 BC) for Thutmose I (r. 1504-1452 BC) were simple naos-shaped boxes decorated with simple texts and distinguished from private examples only by the fact that they were made of stone (quartzite) rather than wood. Amenhotep I, however, had an elaborate calcite box carved inside the box mold, with relief figures of the protective gods surrounding each corner, and the lids of the jars representing the king. The kings followed this pattern, which was further developed, until the early Nineteenth Dynasty.
Changes in Canopic Practices During the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties
The royal calcite boxes changed during the reign of Merneptah (r. 1237-1226 BC), no longer displaying corner deities; they were replaced by four separate urns in the early 20th Dynasty. It is unclear how the urns were placed, but they do not appear to have been placed in a stone box. The only extant royal example is that of Ramses IV (r. 1166-1160 BC).The Evolution of Canopic Equipment from the Early 21st Dynasty
Beginning in the early 21st Dynasty, most mummies were gutted and returned to the body cavity after mummification. Nevertheless, the canopic urn became so essential to funerary attire that high-status individuals continued to use it even when empty. By the Twenty-second Dynasty, they were replaced by solid canopic urns, and a clear example of the triumph of form over function was achieved when mock viscera containers were placed inside the silver canopic sarcophagi of Shoshenq II (ca. 910 BCE).Twenty-first Dynasty urns generally followed the prototypes in their Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom counterparts. In contrast, texts on urns from the 22nd to 23rd Dynasties tended to be fairly simple, often resorting to the minimalist approach of simply naming the deceased person. The form varied greatly, as did the decoration, which was often brightly colored polychrome during the Twenty-third Dynasty. Although uncommon, canopic equipment is found in a minority of the burials of the Third Intermediate Period. Canopic urns were often placed inside naos-shaped boxes, albeit decorated in different ways than in the New Kingdom; around the beginning of the Third Intermediate Period, a jackal in the form of Anubis was mounted on the lid of the box. Kings generally had wooden canopic boxes, with the exception of Shoshenq I, who had a calcite box.
Adaptations in Canopic Jars and Boxes During the Saite Period
The number of canopic jars increased considerably at the end of the twentyfifth dynasty and during the following Saite period. Also, formulations were used in the texts. Rather than merely differing in the deities invoked, the actual wording on each was somewhat distinctive. The two jars of Apries of the twenty-sixth dynasty (r. 589-570 Bce) are interesting in that neither seems to have been used in his burial. Jar shapes were also changed in Saite times becoming somewhat rotund.
Earlier jars usually had their widest points at their shoulders; with Saite jars, the greatest width tended to be lower. Such jars all bear the usual faunal genius heads. There appears to have been a brief reversion to uniformly human heads during the early twenty-seventh dynasty (First Persian Occupation), to judge from the tomb of Iufa (found at Abusir in 1996); his jars also have a nonstandard textual decoration.
Unfortunately, there is insufficient material to judge properly the trends of that epoch. Canopic material from the end of the Late period is rare, but it seems to follow Saite practice. A few Ptolemaic jars are known, yet they were superseded by small but tall shrinelike chests, brightly painted, including images of the genii, and topped by a three-dimensional hawk figure squatting on its haunches in the “Archaic” pose. In shape, the boxes were very similar to some ushabti boxes of the same time span. The point at which canopic equipment disappeared is unclear, but it seems to have been well before the end of Ptolemaic times in Egypt.