Daily Rituals
Bathing and Purification
The ritual of bathing and purification was a daily practice for Canaanite worshippers or priests. It followed four main types:
Water: Purification with water was fundamental. It was widely believed that water purification pleased the gods, leading them to send rain to the earth. Bathing and purification after war were deemed essential, as war was considered a crime that required cleansing. Ritual purification extended to washing an entire house, including all its rooms, contents, and even the ground beneath. Some types of bathing aimed at preventing diseases and stopping epidemics. Water consecration was also believed to drive away demons and remove sins, particularly those related to murder and lies. Additionally, drum beating was sometimes incorporated into purification rituals.
Oil (Anointing): Initially, anointing with oil was not exclusive to kings and priests; it was a widespread ritual performed by the god El, who would alter a person’s state to ward off misfortune. "Purple ointment" was particularly valued for its magical properties, either as a remedy for certain illnesses or as an offering to appease the gods. However, oil anointing was primarily associated with kingship, as the transition of power occurred through anointment, marking the king as the son of the god El. Oil was stored in special containers, sometimes in hollowed-out animal horns.
Fire: Fire was regarded as the most powerful means of purification. Sacrificial offerings were purified by fire, metals were refined through fire, and fire served as a medium for incense burning. Purification by destruction often involved fire, which was considered sacred, as it was linked to the god Melqart. Some temples or their surroundings contained structures resembling altars specifically for fire rituals.
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| Ugarit, rediscovered late Bronze Age Canaanite city-state near present-day Latakia in Syria. Large thick-walled vessel carved out of stone in the palace area. Source Own work.Author:Feldstein |
Prayer (Rgm in Canaanite)
The term rgm suggests that prayers were recited in a pleading, urgent manner. Humans, gods, stones, and plants alike performed prayers. To be effective, prayers had to be repeated without irritating the gods. Prayers followed a structured format, beginning with a description of the present situation, followed by praise for divine attributes, and concluding with a plea from the supplicant. Most prayers focused on ending suffering and restoring prosperity. They generally avoided cursing others, except when directed against demons and malevolent spirits.
Prayer often involved physical gestures such as bowing and prostration. A special type called "complaint prayers" solely repeated grievances. Prayers could be offered for the king or to relieve the land from disaster.
For example, in a prayer to the goddess Anat, the supplicant first stood and looked toward the sky, then knelt, and finally prostrated on the ground. The following is an excerpt from a royal Canaanite prayer to Anat:
"I seek refuge in you, I plead for your counsel. Behold my people at your feet, my people before your slopes. Prayers are silent, yet fire burns within me. I cry out to you in sorrow and repeat my plea. Wood and stone floors lament to the heavens—our people are suffering in the abyss, glowing with pain from cold, lightning, and misery. Let the heavens proclaim their prayer."
Prayers to Baal, particularly those offered by the great king, required complete isolation. The supplicant had to remove their clothes and hang them nearby, as such prayers had to be conducted in total nudity. They involved weeping, lamentation, and cursing rival gods until Baal responded. During the prayer, the worshipper would announce "good news" to Baal, typically reserved for the god El, and describe the melting of idols. The supplicant would then request wings (like demons) to ascend and reach Baal above the clouds.
An excerpt from the Canaanite Pearl Epic illustrates this:
"His voice weakened in his dry mouth as he stood naked, his clothes hanging beside him. With a voice full of weeping and curses, he cursed and cursed again. In secrecy, with complete sincerity, he stood naked while his clothes hung beside him. With his voice, he began to honor Baal, announcing the good news of El and the process of melting (idols), wings to soar upward toward the cloud-rider. At that moment, the great lord rejoiced."
Libations (Pouring Wine on the Ground)
The ritual of pouring wine on the ground was common among the Canaanites. They believed that the sky delighted in it and that it could end drought, symbolizing the fall of rain from the heavens to the earth.
Vows and Offerings
Vows varied depending on the god and occasion but were generally placed at the feet of a god’s statue in their temple to influence divine favor.
Drum Beating
Drumming was a purification ritual aimed at expelling evil spirits.
Melting of Idols
Melting idols was both a purification and votive ritual. Fire was believed to cleanse metal idols, which had been tainted by human impurity. After melting, a new idol of the deity was cast. Thus, the blacksmith’s forge played a vital role in idol worship. The value of melted and recast idols depended on their metal—gold, silver, bronze, copper, or iron—reflecting the social and financial status of the worshipper.
Sacrificial Offerings
Phoenician inscriptions, known as "Punic texts," highlight the importance of votive offerings accompanied by inscriptions detailing their nature and the deity to whom they were dedicated. These inscriptions also defined the portions allocated to priests and worshippers. Most offerings were made to Baal Hammon and the goddess Tanit.
Sacrifices were based on a threefold concept:
- Strengthening the bond between the devotee and the god.
- Atonement for sins.
- The idea of substitution, where a person would offer an animal in their place to atone for their sins.
In Punic (Western Phoenician) culture, sacrifices fell into three categories:
- Burnt Offerings: Completely consumed by fire.
- Communal Offerings: Partially consumed by worshippers.
- Atonement Offerings: Intended for divine favor.
A particularly grim form of sacrifice was the "firstborn offering," where infants and young children were sacrificed to deities—especially Baal Hammon—during times of extreme crisis. The ritual involved layering bricks, covering them with fine gravel, and interring urns containing infant remains. These urns were buried in clusters, topped with inscribed stone slabs. In later periods, standing stelae replaced inscribed slabs.
Offerings and Non-Sacrificial Vows
Votive offerings that were not sacrificial were also placed with the deceased. Archaeological findings in Carthaginian cities like Sintes uncovered vessels containing animal representations, primarily resembling sheep. A unique multi-chambered vessel, designed like a lily flower, was used for offerings.
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