The Myths of Ra: The Eternal Journey of the Sun God
The myths of Ra are generally divided into two categories. The first category portrays Ra in his prime, when he was a powerful young god. These myths are cyclical, describing Ra’s daily journey across the sky, his battle against the serpent Apep, and his passage through the twelve gates of the underworld (Duat). These stories represent the golden age of Ra and the cosmic order.
The second category focuses on Ra in his old age, when he becomes weak, and humanity rebels against him. In these myths, gods such as Hathor, Nut, Horus, and Khnum come to his aid. One significant myth in this category is Ra’s encounter with Isis, who exploits his weakness to steal his secret name. This myth marks the end of Ra’s legendary cycle, and we previously discussed it in detail in our article on "Isis and the Secret Name of Ra."
Ra’s Myths as a Story of Struggle and Survival
Ra’s myths depict a series of challenges. In his youth, he triumphed using his strength and weapons. In his old age, he relied on the support of other gods to protect him from human rebellion and evil forces. While the youthful myths illustrate Ra’s cyclical and dynamic movement, sweeping away his enemies, the myths of his old age show a weakened and faltering god who depends on his divine children to shield him. Eventually, he seems to surrender to Isis, handing over his secret name, transferring his power to her.
These myths might symbolize cosmic cycles, such as the Saros cycle recognized by the Greeks. The myths of Ra’s old age could represent the decline and extinction of the sun, signaling the end of a solar cosmic cycle. The transfer of Ra’s secret name to Isis, who represents dawn, may signify the beginning of a new Isian cosmic era.
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| The journey of the sun god Re. Detail in the inner coffin of Nespawershefyt. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. E.1.1822 |
The Myth of the Eternal Cycle: The Solar Barge
This myth narrates the eternal journey of the sun across the sky, where it rises and sets each day. It incorporates elements from other myths but focuses on the general voyage of Ra from the east to the sky and eventually to the west, entering Duat (the underworld).
In the sky, Ra travels on the celestial goddess’s body, who was called Nut, Hathor, or Isis at different times. She is sometimes depicted as a cow or a bent woman. Since the sky was believed to have a celestial Nile, Ra navigated it on two boats:
- The morning barque (Mandjet) for daytime travel on the celestial Nile
- The evening barque (Mesektet) for the night journey through the underworld
Ra begins his journey at dawn from Mount Bakhu, the eastern pillar of the sky, guarded by the crocodile god Sobek. As the sky, earth, east, and west open up, Ra emerges from the horizon. His presence fills the cosmos with divine energy, accompanied by his followers.
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| Journey of the Sun God Ra, Tomb of Ramesses VI |
Ra’s Daily Journey: A Celestial Struggle
As Ra rises, he shines brightly across the sky, accompanied by the Ennead (group of nine gods). When he emerges from the sacred place, the eastern horizon trembles at the sound of Nut’s voice, sanctifying Ra’s paths. He moves in his sacred boat, enjoying the north wind while continuing his daily cycle. The great deities tremble at his voice as he commands the cosmos.
Throughout the sky, Ra encounters celestial fields, such as the "Field of Reeds", a land of green hills (symbolizing the first primordial mound), where the god Horus of the Horizons (Harakhty) resides. This field has copper walls and is rich in barley crops.
The Battle with the Celestial Serpent
At noon, when Ra reaches the middle of the sky, he faces a celestial serpent named "He Who Is Upon His Mountain", emitting fiery breath. This serpent disrupts Ra’s boat by swallowing part of the celestial Nile. At this moment, the god Seth (Set) intervenes, striking the serpent with his copper spear, forcing it to release the stolen water. Seth then casts a magical spell to bind the serpent, allowing Ra to continue his journey.
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| Set killing the demon snake Apep. Book of the Dead of Lady Cheritwebeshet (21st Dynasty: ca.1069-945) |
Sunset: Ra’s Descent into Duat
As evening approaches, Ra reaches Mount Manu, the western pillar of the sky. Here, he transitions to the underworld boat, where the dead celebrate his arrival, seeking his blessings. They grasp the ropes of Ra’s boat in the horizon of Manu, beginning his journey through Duat (the underworld) on the subterranean Nile. In this version of the myth, the twelve gates of Duat had not yet been conceptualized.
The Daytime Cycle: The Daily Defeat of Apep
Who Is Apep? The Enemy of the Sun
The Egyptians viewed Ra’s journey across the sky as a series of victories against a cosmic serpent named Apep (Apophis in Greek). The priests of Heliopolis (On) recorded these myths in a sacred text, often referred to as "The Book of Death."
A key papyrus detailing this myth, the "Book of the Overthrowing of Apep" (Bremner-Rhind Papyrus), provides insight into the rituals performed to aid Ra in his battle against the serpent.
The Rituals Against Apep
The first part of the text contains three magical spells:
- Spitting on Apep
- Crushing Apep with the left foot
- Seizing a spear to strike Apep
These spells highlight Ra’s might and power, emphasizing how his heat would destroy Apep. The third spell describes how Seth stands at the front of the solar barque, wielding his copper spear to slay Ra’s enemies.
The Rituals Performed by Egyptian Priests
The spells would be recited over a drawing of Apep made in green ink on white papyrus. The priest would spit on it repeatedly, symbolizing Ra’s attack. This ritual was performed hourly throughout the day, culminating at noon when the papyrus was burned, spat upon, and stomped on with the left foot. This ritual was believed to weaken Apep and ensure Ra’s safe passage.
This section includes two sacred texts dedicated to the annihilation of Apep after the incantations have prepared the way magically.
- The first scripture describes the killing of Apep, dismembering his body, separating his (Ba) from his shadow, erasing his name, and destroying his magical power.
- The second scripture details the extermination of his followers (the Sons of Weakness) and the nameless, slain rebels who sought to commit a massacre. The text mentions that these enemies were not only foes of the gods such as Ptah, Amun, Ra, Thoth, and Horus.
Example from the scripture:
Section Three: The Address and Commands
This section consists of:
- A speech directed to the god Ra, describing his work as a creator god.
- Commands directed at Apep, where the magic of words restrains Apep and the rebels.
- A general ritual conclusion.
The Myth of the Nocturnal Journey (Ra in the Duat)
This myth describes the descent of the god Ra into the underworld each evening and his emergence from it the next morning. It portrays a divine journey where Ra encounters twelve different realms.
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| Ra facing obstacles from the Western Necropolis of Thebes, New Kingdom |
- The Realm of the River of Ra
Ra spends the first hour in this river, which is surrounded by six serpents on each bank. Fire erupts from their mouths, and they encircle the first gate while the gods guard Ra’s solar barque. - The Realm of Ons
Here, the river widens, and the gods travel upon it without oars or sails. This realm is home to the spirits of wheat, where deities oversee the grain harvest and bless the crops. The goddess of the second hour opens the gates. - The Realm of the River of the One God (Osiris)
Here, Osiris, the god of the dead, appears on his throne above a deep, clear lake with a single blue lotus floating on its surface. The four sons of Horus stand upon it, aiding Osiris in the judgment of souls. Osiris evaluates the deceased, casting sinners into the pits of fire (those whose hearts outweigh the feather of Ma’at) while the righteous (those whose hearts are lighter than the feather) are led by Thoth to dwell in Osiris’ kingdom. - The Realm of the Cemetery's Entrance
This is an endless desert filled with massive, winged serpents. The river here is lost among the rocks, its course deep and steep. Osiris transforms into a great serpent to guard Ra’s barque. - The Hidden Realm
The god Sokar, depicted as a falcon, resides deep within the earth in a cavern guarded by a Sphinx on either side. A three-headed serpent lurks nearby. Near Sokar lies a boiling lake where sinners and wrongdoers are cast. - The Realm of the Water Source
This realm belongs to Osiris, with statues of gods standing along the riverbanks. Seven scepters and a mighty roaring lion stand in the darkness. Three treasure chests, each guarded by a fire-breathing serpent, contain mystical objects (a human head, a bird’s wing, a lion’s leg, and a five-headed serpent). A masterful being within these coils holds the symbol of flesh, restoring life to the dead and reviving the lifeless Ra aboard the barque. - The Realm of the Secret Cave
This is the dwelling of the great serpent Apep, who swallows everything that enters the river. If Ra’s barque is destroyed here, Ra will perish, and darkness will reign over the world. This is the most perilous hour of the journey. The goddess Isis stands at the barque’s prow, chanting incantations and performing magical gestures. Ra’s lifeless body is protected by the serpent Mehen. As the barque nears Apep, coiling in the sands ready to strike, Ra’s assistants bind him with ropes and stab him with sharp weapons. However, Apep is immortal and cannot die, waiting each night to ambush Ra’s vessel.
After passing this trial, the barque reaches the tombs of the gods near the river. These tombs are high mounds of sand, each topped with a structure. Atop each mound, a human head watches Ra’s passage.
- The Realm of the Gods’ Resting Place
Here, the deceased gods reside, mummified and wrapped in linen. They greet Ra as he passes, but Ra does not respond. Ahead of the barque, nine gods lead the way, including the four spirits of the god Tatjenen, depicted as wild rams with distinct crowns:
- The first wears a long feather.
- The second bears the red crown of Lower Egypt.
- The third wears the white crown of Upper Egypt.
- The fourth is crowned with the solar disk.
- The Realm of the Land of Forms
The river flows violently here, guarded by twelve goddesses of the stars, each holding short oars. This realm is relatively bright, as twelve enormous serpents along the riverbanks emit flames from their mouths. Various creatures resembling cattle and rams with human spirits appear here—these are the souls of beings who received offerings in the mortal world. The goddesses of the stars continue singing as the barque passes peacefully. - The Realm of the Water Spring and Shores
Here, the river runs deep and fast. The barque is protected by heavily armed guards wielding brilliant weapons, led by the Morning Star in the form of a two-headed serpent wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. Between its coils stands the great celestial falcon, ruler of the skies. A massive serpent, the spirit of the earth, watches over Ra’s enemies lurking in the Duat.
In this kingdom—the largest of all—Khepri merges with Ra and recreates him anew. Ra's body remains lying in the boat, while his soul unites with the soul of Khepri.
11. The Kingdom of the Cave’s Mouth
Here, the river flows calmly, and the gods tow the boat carrying the body of the serpent, the protector of Ra. At the front of the boat, a fiery star shines, while the kingdom itself is engulfed in a terrifying blaze. This is the realm where the fires of the afterlife burn, where the bodies of evildoers are cut into pieces and thrown into the flames to be consumed. Horus stands by, watching their remains.
12. The Kingdom of Darkness Departing and Light Approaching
At the front of the boat stands the great scarab, Khepri, preparing to restore life to Ra before he reaches the boundaries of the Duat. This kingdom lies within the belly of a massive serpent named "The Life of the Gods," through which the boat travels. Here, Ra transforms into Khepri and is reborn, for the journey through the Duat is nearing its end.
Inside the serpent, twelve followers of Ra pull the boat forward, eventually delivering him at the serpent’s mouth to twelve goddesses, who then guide the boat toward the eastern horizon of the sky. Ra's lifeless body is cast from the boat, much like a serpent sheds its old skin after new growth. His spirit and life essence now reside within Khepri, marking the completion of his rebirth.
Emerging from the labyrinth of the Duat amid songs and rejoicing, Ra's night boat, Sektet, is replaced by the morning boat, Maatet. The gates of the sky swing open, and daylight breaks forth. From between the alabaster pillars, Ra’s boat rises, illuminating Bakhu Mountain with its light. On the eastern horizon, the great serpent guarding the green waters greets Ra with joy. The cycle then begins anew.
Legends of Old Age (Legends of the End of the Golden Age)
1. Ra, the Rebellion of Humans, and the Goddess Hathor
As the god Ra grew old and became elderly, a group of wicked humans began conspiring against him and rejecting his blessings. Saddened by their ingratitude, Ra summoned the great gods (Shu, Tefnut, Geb, and Nut), the first four of his children, and spoke to them in secret so that the people would not know what was decided in their meeting. The sky goddess Nut suggested that Ra should sit on his throne and gaze upon them, burning them with his divine sight. When he did so, the people fled into the desert.
It was then decided that Ra would send his eye, Tefnut, in the form of the goddess Hathor to punish the rebels and drink their blood. However, Hathor became excessive in her vengeance and nearly wiped out both the guilty and the innocent. Seeing this, Ra, in his mercy, sought to prevent further slaughter. He commanded his followers to prepare 7,000 jars of beer mixed with red ochre (iron oxide) to make it resemble human blood.
When Hathor awoke in the morning to continue her task of killing humans, she found the fields flooded with the red liquid. She saw her own beautiful reflection in it and, believing it to be blood, drank deeply. She enjoyed its taste, became intoxicated, and forgot about her mission to destroy humankind.
The legend continues as Hathor eventually sobers up and realizes the trick her father, Ra, played to stop her from completing her task. Enraged, she decides to leave Egypt and transforms into a lioness, journeying south to Sudan, where she resides. However, Ra misses her and mourns her absence. He sends multiple messengers to persuade her to return, but they all fail.
The council of gods then advises Ra to send Thoth, the wise god, who takes the form of a baboon and finds Hathor wandering the deserts of Sudan. When she sees him, she roars in anger, and Thoth realizes she is still furious. To calm her, he performs amusing tricks, making her laugh. As she relaxes, he begins persuading her to return. Eventually, he succeeds, and Hathor returns to Egypt, where Ra rejoices at her return.
2. Ra, the Rebellion of Humans, and the Goddess Nut
Once again, humans rebelled against Ra. The gods advised their father Ra to ascend upon the back of the sky and distance himself from humans. The goddess Nut, the sky deity, then transformed into a cow, and Ra rode upon her back. From that moment on, humans could see him on her back.
As the cow moved toward Ra’s palace, darkness spread across the land. When dawn broke, warriors carrying bows and staffs appeared. Ra then said, “Lift me higher on your back and take me away from them so they cannot reach me.” Nut requested that Ra provide her with many things in the sky, as she would no longer be able to eat or drink from the earth. In response, Ra created fields and stars in the sky, giving rise to the “Fields of Offerings,” the “Fields of Reeds (Iaru),” and the “Fields of Stars,” which are eternally reborn.
As Nut ascended to these fields, her legs grew longer, and she trembled from the great height. Seeing her struggle, Ra created millions of sky pillars—eight deities in pairs—to support her body. He then commanded his son, Shu, the god of air, to stand beneath Nut, supporting both her and the eight sky gods who held her legs, two in the east and two in the west. Shu placed Nut upon his head, securing her in the heavens.
This myth was depicted in many colorful and beautiful illustrations, where Nut was shown as a great cow with stars upon her belly and Ra’s solar boat sailing across her body. Later, the image of the cow was replaced with that of a woman arching over the earth.
3. Ra, the Rebellion of Humans, and Other Gods
Scattered texts speak of the rebellion of humans and the weak against Ra. In the Book of the Dead (Chapter 17), there is a reference to this theme, where the weak are delivered to Ra on the hill at Hermopolis. In this passage, Ra is described as the “Great Cat,” symbolizing the sun, as he cuts down the Ished tree (the Persea tree), which is Nut’s sacred tree, representing the rebirth of the sun with each dawn.
The opening of this tree occurs when the weak atone for their transgressions against Ra, signifying a rebirth of the god from among the wicked. Thus, the “Great Cat” emerges from the Persea tree at dawn after a night of fierce battle against these evildoers who attempted to enter the eastern sky, seemingly trying to prevent the sun from rising.
Another text, found on the walls of the Kom Ombo Temple, recounts the heroic deeds of Horus, who vanquishes 257 of the wicked standing on the shore of the Great Lake. With the help of Shu, he slays them, turning crimson in color due to the battle.
A third inscription, discovered on the walls of Esna Temple, describes how Horus saves Ra and rescues him from a great turmoil. In another Esna text, the god Khnum plays a role in defending Ra and saving him from the forces of evil.
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